Environmental Acts, Policies, Organisations, Conventions & Other Facts

1. Environmental Acts and Policies of India

A. Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972

• Schedule System: Six schedules classifying species by protection level:
  • Schedule I: Highest protection (tiger, elephant, rhino, lion, snow leopard, Great Indian Bustard, sea turtles, Gangetic dolphin) — hunting strictly prohibited; violation = highest penalty
  • Schedule II: High protection (fur-bearing animals, smaller carnivores)
  • Schedule VI: Protected plants (Nepenthes khasiana, Red Vanda, Blue Vanda, Saussurea lappa, Cycas beddomei)
• Protected Areas: Framework for National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, Community Reserves
• CITES Implementation: India uses WPA schedules to align with CITES Appendices
• Regulation of trade: Prohibits hunting, trade, and possession of scheduled species
• Penalties: For Schedule I species — up to 7 years imprisonment + ₹25,000 fine
• Central Zoo Authority (CZA): Established under WPA; oversees zoos

• 2002 Amendment: Added Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves as new Protected Area categories
• 2006 Amendment: Allowed for tiger conservation (NTCA provisions)
• 2022 Amendment (WPA Amendment Act 2022): Reduced schedules from 6 to 4; new category for invasive alien species; gave legal teeth to CITES implementation; National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) empowered

B. Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986

• Authorizes the Central Government to take all measures necessary to protect and improve the environment
• Standards: Power to set standards for emissions and effluents
• Regulation: Power to regulate industries in environmentally sensitive areas
• Prohibition: Can prohibit or restrict industrial operations
• Entry and Inspection: Officers can enter premises and examine industrial processes
• Penalties: Imprisonment up to 5 years + fine

• Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification (1994, revised 2006)
• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification (1991, revised 2011, 2019)
• Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) declared around protected areas
• Hazardous Waste Management Rules
• Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules
• E-Waste Management Rules
• Solid Waste Management Rules
• Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules (2010, revised 2017)
• Plastic Waste Management Rules (2016)

C. National Forest Policy, 1988

1. Maintain 33% of land area under forest/tree cover (national goal; India's forest cover is ~21.7% — FSI 2021)
2. Ecological stability — protect forests to maintain soil, water, and air quality
3. Tribal welfare — ensure rights of forest-dwelling communities
4. No-change rule: Forest land should not be diverted for non-forest uses without stringent scrutiny
5. Joint Forest Management (JFM): Partnership between forest department and local communities

• Protecting forests from fires, grazing, and encroachments
• Reforestation of degraded lands
• Stopping fuelwood collection by substituting other fuels

D. Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• 3-Tier Structure:
  1. National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) (Chennai) — apex body; deals with foreign entities and high-value transactions
  2. State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) — state level; regulate commercial use within India
  3. Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) — village/local level; prepare People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) — document local biodiversity knowledge
• Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS): Companies/researchers using Indian biological resources must share benefits with communities
• Prevention of Biopiracy: Any foreign national accessing India's biological resources requires prior approval from NBA
  • Famous biopiracy cases India challenged: Turmeric (US patent revoked), Basmati rice (challenged), Neem (European patent revoked)
• Biological Heritage Sites: Local areas of biodiversity significance

E. Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 — Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act

• Individual rights: Homestead, cultivation (up to 4 hectares), collection of minor forest produce (MFP)
• Community rights: Use of forest for grazing, fishing, habitation
• Community forest resource (CFR) rights: Community manages and protects forest
• MFP: Ban on exploitative lease to contractors; tribal communities can sell directly
• Habitat rights: For particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs)
• Implementation: Gram Sabha is the core body for recognizing rights
• Conflict with conservation: FRA rights can apply even within protected areas; led to conflicts with wildlife protection

F. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Notification

• CRZ 1991: First coastal regulation; banned most construction within 500m from high tide line (HTL)
• CRZ 2011: Modified; more nuanced zone categories (CRZ I to IV)
• CRZ 2019: Further relaxation for eco-tourism and economic activities; reduced No Development Zone from 200m to 50m in some areas; allowed floor space index increase in CRZ II areas

• CRZ-I (Ecologically Sensitive Areas): Mangroves, coral reefs, wildlife habitats — strictest protection
• CRZ-II: Already developed areas along the coast
• CRZ-III: Rural coastal areas — limited development
• CRZ-IV: Aquatic zones up to 12 nautical miles

G. Wetland Rules, 2010 / Wetland (Conservation and Management) Rules, 2017

• Purpose: Conservation and wise use of wetlands
• Replace: Wetland was earlier regulated under EPA 1986 only
• Key provisions: Prohibit draining, filling, reclamation of notified wetlands; setting up of Wetland Authorities in states
• India's Ramsar Sites: 80+ Ramsar sites (as of 2024) — highest in South Asia
• Important wetlands: Chilika (Odisha), Keoladeo (Rajasthan), Dal Lake (J&K), Loktak Lake (Manipur), Point Calimere (TN)

H. National Green Tribunal (NGT), 2010

• Established under: National Green Tribunal Act, 2010
• World's second dedicated environmental tribunal (after New Zealand's Environment Court)
• Jurisdiction: Disputes regarding environmental protection, conservation of forests, any environmental damage
• Principal Bench: New Delhi; 4 Zonal Benches (Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata, Chennai)
• Powers: Can direct payment of compensation for environmental damage; can order restoration of environment; suo motu powers
• Not subject to: CPC (Civil Procedure Code) — follows principles of natural justice; fast-track
• Key NGT orders: Goa Foundation vs. Union of India (mining moratorium); Yamuna cleanup orders; orders on stubble burning

I. The Ozone Depleting Substances Rules (under EPA 1986)

• Context: India's obligations under Vienna Convention + Montreal Protocol
• Controls production, trade, and use of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS): CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride
• Ozone Cell (Ministry of Environment) oversees implementation

J. Other Waste Management Rules (already covered in detail in Waste Module)

2. Environmental Organisations

National Environmental Bodies:

Key Bodies:

• Statutory body under Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960
• Advises government on animal welfare; licenses education and exhibitions; oversees animal transportation
• Headquarters: Haryana (earlier Chennai)

• Statutory body under WPA 1972 (1991 amendment)
• Regulates zoos in India (recognition, inspection, captive breeding)
• Headquarters: New Delhi
• Manages Species Survival Plan for critically endangered species

• Statutory body under Biological Diversity Act 2002
• Headquarters: Chennai
• Approves access to biological resources by foreign entities
• Fights biopiracy; manages benefit sharing

• Statutory body under MOEFCC
• Intelligence and enforcement wing for wildlife crime
• Coordinates with INTERPOL, WCO, CITES MIKE programme

3. Environmental Conventions

A. UNCED (Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro, 1992):

• United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
• Most important environmental summit ever held: 178 nations participated
• Outcomes:
  1. Rio Declaration: 27 principles of sustainable development (including Precautionary Principle, Polluter Pays Principle)
  2. Agenda 21: Comprehensive action plan for sustainable development
  3. CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity): 3 objectives — conservation, sustainable use, equitable benefit sharing
  4. UNFCCC (UN Framework Convention on Climate Change): Foundation for Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement
  5. Forest Principles: Non-legally binding principles for all types of forests
• UNCED+20 = Rio+20 (2012): Produced "The Future We Want" document; established HLPF (High Level Political Forum for SDGs)

B. UNCCD (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 1994):

• Entered into force: 1996
• Addresses desertification and land degradation — particularly in Africa
• First legally binding international agreement linking environment, development, and human rights
• Objective: Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN)
• Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) target: No net loss of healthy land by 2030; India committed to restore 26 million hectares by 2030

C. UNCBD (Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD):

• Adopted at UNCED 1992; entered into force 1993
• Three objectives: Conservation, Sustainable use, Fair and equitable benefit sharing (ABS)
• Protocols:
  • Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000): Controls transboundary movement of GMOs
  • Nagoya Protocol on ABS (2010): Regulation of access to genetic resources and sharing of benefits
• COP-15 Kunming-Montreal Agreement (2022): "30 by 30" — protect 30% of land and ocean by 2030; USD 200 billion/year for biodiversity

D. Ramsar Convention (1971):

• Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
• Signed in Ramsar, Iran in 1971; entered into force 1975
• Promotes conservation and wise use of wetlands
• "Wise Use" principle: Sustainable use compatible with nature conservation
• India has 80+ Ramsar sites (2024) — highest in South Asia
• Important Ramsar sites in India: Chilika Lake (Odisha — 1981, first Indian site), Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan), Wular Lake (J&K), Loktak Lake (Manipur), Harike (Punjab), Sundarbans (WB), Point Calimere (TN)

E. CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species):

• 1963 (adopted), 1975 (into force)
• Controls and regulates international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants
• 3 Appendices:
  • Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction — commercial trade banned (tiger, elephant, rhino, whale shark)
  • Appendix II: Not currently threatened but trade must be controlled — permits required (Queen Conch, seahorse)
  • Appendix III: Protected in at least one country that requests CITES help — certificates required

F. TRAFFIC (Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce):

• Joint programme of WWF and IUCN
• World's largest wildlife trade monitoring network
• Monitors legal/illegal wildlife trade globally; publishes reports
• TRAFFIC India office: New Delhi

G. CMS (Convention on Migratory Species / Bonn Convention, 1979):

• Provides global platform for conservation of migratory species and habitats
• Appendix I: Endangered migratory species — hunting prohibited
• Appendix II: Migratory species with unfavorable status — encourages international agreements
• India is a signatory; Indian species listed: Great Indian Bustard, Bengal Florican, Snow Leopard, marine turtles, Amur Falcon (the remarkable raptor that migrates Siberia-India-Africa)

H. IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 1948):

• The world's oldest and largest global environmental organization
• Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland
• Red List: Assesses conservation status of more than 157,000 species
• Commissions: Species Survival Commission (SSC), World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), Commission on Environmental Law (CEL), etc.

I. Stockholm Convention (2001):

• Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
• Targets 12 "Dirty Dozen" chemicals (DDT, Aldrin, Dieldrin, Chlordane, PCBs, Dioxins, Furans, etc.) that persist in environment, bioaccumulate, and harm health
• Aim: Eliminate or restrict production/use of POPs

J. Basel, Rotterdam, and minamata Conventions:

K. Vienna Convention (1985) and Montreal Protocol (1987):

• Framework convention acknowledging need to protect ozone layer
• General obligations; no specific binding targets

• Most successful international environmental agreement ever — universal ratification (198 parties)
• Phase-out schedule for Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS): CFCs, HCFCs, Halons, Carbon Tetrachloride, Methyl Bromide
• Result: The ozone hole is slowly recovering — expected full recovery by ~2066 over Antarctica
• Kigali Amendment (2016): Extends Montreal Protocol to also phase down HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) — powerful greenhouse gases used as CFC replacements; expected to prevent 0.5°C warming by 2100

L. Other Important Conventions:

• UN framework; provides financial incentives for developing countries to preserve forests
• REDD+ expands to include: conservation of forest carbon stocks, sustainable forest management, enhancement of forest carbon stocks
• Part of UNFCCC; key tool for climate mitigation

• Financial mechanism for CBD, UNFCCC, Stockholm, Minamata, UNCCD
• Provides grants to developing countries; manages Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF)

• Recognizes agricultural landscapes combining biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and cultural values
• Indian GIAHS: Koraput traditional agriculture (Odisha), Kuttanad below sea level farming (Kerala), Saffron heritage of Kashmir, Ramnad Mundu salt farming (TN), Pampore saffron fields

• Principal body for environmental action by UN; headquarters: Nairobi, Kenya
• Coordinates environmental activities across UN system
• Provides scientific information on environmental threats
• UNEP Finance Initiative: Mainstreams environmental sustainability in financial sector

4. Other Facts — Important at a Glance

State Animals and Birds (Selected):

Tiger Reserves (54 as of 2024):

• First: Jim Corbett (Uttarakhand, 1973)
• Largest: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam (AP/Telangana)
• Smallest: Bor (Maharashtra)
• Highest tiger density: Orang (Assam)
• Newest: Ramgarh Vishdhari (Rajasthan), Guru Ghasidas (CG), Srivilliputhur-Megamalai (TN), Ranipur (UP)

Elephant Reserves (32 as of 2024):

• First: Singhbhum (Jharkhand, 1992)
• Largest: Mayurbhanj (Odisha)

National Parks in India (106):

• First: Jim Corbett NP (1936, Uttarakhand) — also India's first National Park
• Largest: Hemis NP (Ladakh — also largest in India)
• Marine: Mahatma Gandhi Marine NP (Andaman)

Biosphere Reserves (18 total, 12 in UNESCO network):

1. Nilgiri (1986) — FIRST
2. Nanda Devi (1988)
3. Nokrek (1988) — Meghalaya
4. Manas (1989) — Assam
5. Sundarbans (1989) — WB
6. Gulf of Mannar (1989) — TN [Largest]
7. Great Nicobar (1989) — Islands
8. Simlipal (1994) — Odisha
9. Dibru-Saikhowa (1986) — Assam
10. Dehang-Debang (1998) — Arunachal Pradesh
11. Pachmarhi (1999) — MP
12. Khangchendzonga (2000) — Sikkim
13. Achanakmar-Amarkantak (2005) — CG
14. Agasthyamalai (2001) — TN/Kerala
15. Kachchh (2008) — Gujarat
16. Cold Desert (2009) — HP
17. Seshachalam (2010) — AP
18. Panna (2011) — MP

India's Ramsar Sites (80+), Key ones:

• Chilika Lake (Odisha, 1981) — First Ramsar site; Asia's largest brackish water lake
• Keoladeo Ghana (Rajasthan, 1981) — UNESCO World Heritage
• Wular Lake (J&K) — One of Asia's largest freshwater lakes
• Loktak Lake (Manipur) — Floating islands (Phumdis); Keibul Lamjao (world's only floating NP)
• Harike (Punjab) — Where Beas and Sutlej meet
• Sambhar Salt Lake (Rajasthan) — India's largest saline lake
• Sundarbans Wetland (WB) — UNESCO WHC
• Bhitarkanika (Odisha) — Saltwater crocodile habitat
• Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary (Gujarat)

India's Sacred Groves (~100,000+):

• Dev Vans / Dev Bhoomi: Himachal Pradesh, J&K
• Orans: Rajasthan (often protected by Bishnoi community)
• Devarakadus: Karnataka
• Sarnas / Jaheras: Jharkhand / Madhya Pradesh
• Kavu: Kerala
• Ayyappan Kadu / Kovil: Tamil Nadu
• Gram Devata Van: Assam