Biodiversity: Basics, Indian Biodiversity, Conservation Initiatives & Efforts

1. Basics of Biodiversity

Types (Levels) of Biodiversity

1. Genetic Diversity:

• Variation in genetic information (DNA/genes) within a species
• The raw material for evolution and adaptation
• Provides resilience to changing environments (diseases, climate)
• Examples: Different varieties of rice (Oryza sativa) — Basmati, Indrayani, IR-36; ~50,000 traditional rice varieties; Wild breeds of dog vs domestic

2. Species Diversity:

• Variety and abundance of different species in a given area
• Has two components:
  • Species Richness: Number of different species in an area
  • Species Evenness: Relative abundance of each species (how equally distributed)
• A key biodiversity hotspot has high richness AND high endemism

3. Ecosystem Diversity:

• Variety of habitats, ecological communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere
• Includes diversity of terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems
• India has extraordinary ecosystem diversity — tropical forests, Himalayan alpine meadows, marine islands, mangroves, wetlands, deserts

Scales at Which Biodiversity is Assessed

• Shannon-Wiener Index (H'): Most used; accounts for both richness and evenness
• Simpson's Index (1-D): Probability that two randomly chosen individuals are different species

Methods for Quantifying Biodiversity

1. Species counting/inventory: Field surveys, transects, point counts (birds)
2. Remote Sensing + GIS: Satellite imagery to map habitat types and vegetation
3. Camera Trapping: Wildlife monitoring (tigers, leopards, deer)
4. eDNA (Environmental DNA): Detecting species from water/soil DNA samples — non-invasive
5. Bioacoustics: Recording animal sounds to detect and monitor species
6. Citizen Science: iNaturalist, eBird (Cornell Lab) — crowdsourced biodiversity data

Ecosystem Services (Types of Services Provided by Biodiversity)

2. Threats to Biodiversity and Extinctions

Major Threats — HIPCC Framework:

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation — The LARGEST single threat globally; deforestation, agriculture conversion, urbanization, wetland drainage
2. Invasive Alien Species — Exotic species that outcompete native species; e.g., Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in Indian lakes, Lantana camara in Indian forests, parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus), Nile perch in Lake Victoria
3. Pollution — Pesticides, industrial chemicals, plastic, oil spills, air pollution
4. Climate Change — Habitat shifts, coral bleaching, altered breeding cycles, extreme events
5. Commercial Overexploitation — Overhunting, overfishing, poaching (ivory, horn, skin)

Red Data Book and IUCN Red List:

• Red Data Book: Published by IUCN; provides information on species that are rare, threatened, or endangered
• IUCN Red List Categories:

  Category	Code	Description
  Extinct	EX	No known individuals remaining
  Extinct in the Wild	EW	Survives only in captivity/cultivation
  Critically Endangered	CR	Extremely high risk of extinction
  Endangered	EN	High risk of extinction
  Vulnerable	VU	Facing increasing risk
  Near Threatened	NT	Close to qualifying as threatened
  Least Concern	LC	Not currently at risk
  Data Deficient	DD	Insufficient information to assess

Mass Extinctions:

• "Sixth Mass Extinction" (Holocene Extinction): Current extinction event driven by human activity
• Current extinction rate estimated at 1,000x the natural background rate
• Species are going extinct 100–1,000 times faster than in the fossil record

Endangered Species Native to India (Selected):

3. Indian Biodiversity

India's Biodiversity Status:

• Megadiverse Country: One of 17 identified by Conservation International
• 2.4% of world's land → 7-8% of recorded species
• ~45,000 plant species (33% endemic flowering plants)
• ~91,000 animal species (~6.5% of world's fauna)
• 4 Biodiversity Hotspots (see Ecology Basics topic)

Indian Bio-Geographical Classification (Rodgers & Panwar, 1988):

1. Trans-Himalayas (Tibetan Plateau ecosystem)
2. Himalayas (Western, Central, Eastern)
3. Indian Desert (Thar Desert)
4. Semi-Arid (Cattail scrub and dry land)
5. Western Ghats (tropical evergreen forests)
6. Deccan Peninsula (dry tropical forests)
7. Gangetic Plain (most modified)
8. North-East India (richest zone; 2 hotspots nearby)
9. Islands (Andaman & Nicobar — very high endemism; Lakshadweep — coral)
10. Coasts (mangroves, estuaries, sea beaches)

Animal Diversity of India:

• India has ~397 species of mammals
• Big Cats: Bengal Tiger, Asiatic Lion (Gir, Gujarat), Leopard, Snow Leopard, Clouded Leopard (NE India), Cheetah (reintroduced from Namibia — Kuno NP, 2022)
• Elephants: Asian Elephant (Elephas maximus) — ~27,000 in India; largest global population
• Rhinos: Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) — ~4,000 in India; mainly Kaziranga
• Deer: Barasingha (Swamp Deer), Kashmir Stag (Hangul), Chital, Sambar, Musk Deer
• Dolphins: Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica) — India's National Aquatic Animal; Irrawaddy Dolphin
• Marine mammals: Blue Whale, Humpback Whale, Dugong (Sea Cow) in Andaman and Gulf of Mannar

• Hangul (Kashmir Stag) — ~300 individuals — Dachigam NP
• Pygmy Hog — only in Manas NP, Assam
• Great Indian Bustard — ~150 birds remaining; Rajasthan, Gujarat
• Namdapha Flying Squirrel — Arunachal Pradesh
• Elvira Rat — Tamil Nadu

• India has ~1,300+ bird species
• Endemics: ~78 species endemic to India
• State birds: Peacock (National Bird of India), Siberian Crane (migratory/winter visitor)
• Notable endangered birds: Great Indian Bustard, Bengal Florican, Jerdon's Courser, Forest Owlet, Himalayan Quail (possibly extinct)

• India has ~2,500 freshwater fish species
• Endangered: Mahseer (Golden Mahseer — Tor putitora), Chilwa Barb
• Marine: Whale Shark (protected), Seahorse (protected), Sea Horse (CITES Appendix II)

• India's coral reefs: Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep (largest atoll in India), Andaman & Nicobar, Gulf of Kutch
• Significantly threatened by bleaching (ENSO events, rising SST)

Plant Diversity of India:

• Aquatic plants: Lotus, Victoria amazonica (Giant Water Lily)
• Epiphytes: Orchids growing on trees (India has ~1,200 orchid species)
• Xerophytes: Adapted to arid conditions — cacti, succulents
• Mangroves: Sundari (Heritiera fomes) — gives Sundarbans its name; Rhizophora, Avicennia

• Pitcher Plant (Nepenthes khasiana) — Meghalaya; only species found in India; protected under WPA 1972
• Venus Flytrap (exotic, not native to India)
• Sundew (Drosera) — found in Western Ghats high altitudes
• Bladderwort (Utricularia) — aquatic; found across India

• Lantana camara — one of world's 100 worst invasive species; invades Indian forests; reduces native understory
• Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress Grass / Gajar Ghas) — causes severe dermatitis; invades agricultural fields and roadsides
• Eichhornia crassipes (Water Hyacinth) — blocks waterways, reduces aquatic biodiversity but also used in phytoremediation
• Prosopis juliflora (Mesquite) — invasive in arid India; threatens native species

• Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) — adaptogen; stress relief
• Neem (Azadirachta indica) — anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, biopesticide
• Turmeric (Curcuma longa) — anti-inflammatory (curcumin); India fought biopiracy case over it (vs USA patent)
• Cinchona (Cinchona officinalis) — source of quinine for malaria treatment
• Rauwolfia serpentina — source of reserpine for hypertension
• Brahmi (Bacopa monnieri) — cognitive enhancement; memory

• Schedule I: Highest protection; hunting strictly prohibited; includes elephant, tiger, rhino, snow leopard, lion, gangetic dolphin, great Indian bustard, sea turtles — most endangered species
• Schedule II: High protection; includes fur-bearing species, smaller carnivores
• Schedule III & IV: Less endangered; some regulated hunting permitted (earlier)
• Schedule V: Vermin (pests); can be killed — rats, crows
• Schedule VI: Protected plants (Nepenthes khasiana, Red Vanda orchid, Blue Vanda, Saussurea lappa)

Marine Organisms:

• Phytoplankton: Microscopic photosynthetic organisms — the primary producers of marine ecosystems; basis of ocean food chain; produce ~50% of Earth's oxygen (mainly diatoms, dinoflagellates, cyanobacteria)
• Zooplankton: Tiny heterotrophic animals — feed on phytoplankton; include copepods, krill, jellyfish larvae; crucial link in marine food chain
• Red Tides: Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) — explosive growth of toxic dinoflagellates → toxic to marine life and humans (shellfish poisoning)

• Seagrass: Marine flowering plants (NOT algae); grow in shallow coastal waters; ecosystems include Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Lakshadweep; critical habitat for Dugong, sea turtles, seahorses; significant Blue Carbon store
• Seaweed (Macroalgae): Red, green, brown algae; sold commercially (agar, carrageenan, fertilizer); India cultivates seaweed in TN, Kerala

4. Biodiversity Conservation Initiatives

National Initiatives:

• Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules protect 200m from HTL along coast; restrict construction
• Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): Gulf of Mannar Marine NP, Mahatma Gandhi Marine NP (Andaman)
• Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary (AP) — second-largest mangrove in India

• Patches of forest protected by communities for religious/cultural reasons for centuries
• Examples: Dev Vans (J&K), Orans (Rajasthan), Devarakadus (Karnataka), Sarnas (Jharkhand), Jaheras (MP)
• India has ~100,000+ sacred groves; preserve unique biodiversity, including rare endemic species
• Some sacred groves have species found nowhere else

• Live animals of Schedule I and II species
• Parts of Schedule I animals (bones, skin, ivory, rhino horn)
• Red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) — smuggled extensively to China and Japan
• Sea cucumbers, certain bird species, corals

Global Initiatives:

• UNESCO programme launched 1971
• Promotes sustainable relationships between humans and their environments
• Biosphere Reserves: UNESCO-designated; have three zones:
  • Core Zone: Strictly protected; no human activity
  • Buffer Zone: Research and low-impact tourism allowed
  • Transition Zone: Sustainable human settlements and economic activities

• 18 in total; 12 in UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR)
• First: Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (1986)
• Largest: Gulf of Mannar (marine biosphere reserve)
• UNESCO network includes: Nilgiri, Gulf of Mannar, Sundarbans, Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Pachmarhi, Simlipal, Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Great Nicobar, Agasthyamalai, Khangchendzonga, Panna, Seshachalam

• Concept by Norman Myers (1988) — areas with high endemism AND significant habitat loss
• Must have: ≥1,500 endemic vascular plant species + lost ≥70% original habitat
• Global total: 36 hotspots (updated); India has 4 hotspots
• Together cover ~2.5% of Earth's land surface but hold >50% of world's endemic plant species

• UNESCO designation; "Outstanding Universal Value"
• Natural World Heritage Sites in India: Kaziranga NP, Manas NP, Keoladeo NP, Sundarbans NP, Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers NPs, Western Ghats, Great Himalayan NP

5. Conservation Efforts — Major Projects

Project Tiger (1973):

• India's most iconic conservation initiative; launched under PM Indira Gandhi
• Purpose: Protect Bengal Tiger from extinction due to poaching and habitat loss
• Current status: 54 Tiger Reserves (as of 2024) covering ~75,000 sq km
• Tiger Census 2022: India has 3,167 tigers → World's largest wild tiger population (~75% of global)
• NTCA (National Tiger Conservation Authority): Oversees Project Tiger; formed under WPA 1972
• Success story: Population grew from ~1,827 (1973) to 3,167+ (2022)
• Notable Reserves: Jim Corbett (UP — first TR), Ranthambore (Rajasthan), Bandhavgarh (MP), Sundarbans (WB), Mudumalai (TN), Kaziranga (Assam)

Project Elephant (1992):

• Protects Asian Elephant and elephant habitat
• India has ~27,000-29,000 Asian elephants → 60% of world population
• 29 Elephant Reserves in India; spanning 14 states
• Issues: Human-elephant conflict, corridor fragmentation, electrocution from agricultural fences
• Elephant Declaration (2019): Strengthening cooperation on elephant conservation

Project Lion:

• Launched 2020 to protect Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica)
• India's only wild lion population: in Gir Forest, Gujarat (~700 lions — only location on Earth)
• Key issue: All lions in one location → disease outbreak could wipe out entire population
• Kuno National Park (MP): Identified as second home for Asiatic Lions but lions gave way to Cheetahs (controversy)

Project Leopard (SECURE Himalaya):

• SECURE Himalaya (Securing Livelihoods, Conservation, Sustainable Use and Restoration of High Range Himalayan Ecosystems) — jointly with UNDP
• Focuses on Snow Leopard, Tibetan wolf, Tibetan antelope, Tibetan gazelle
• Snow Leopard: ~500-700 in India (Ladakh, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh)

Project Hangul:

• Protects the Hangul (Kashmir Stag / Red Deer) — Critically Endangered
• Confined to Dachigam National Park, J&K — only ~300 individuals remain
• Threats: Habitat encroachment, poaching, predation by stray dogs, disturbance by military forces

Crocodile Conservation Project:

• Launched 1975 with UNDP assistance
• Three species of crocodilians in India:
  1. Mugger/Marsh Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) — widespread in freshwater
  2. Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) — Andaman & Nicobar, Bhitarkanika (Odisha) — world's largest reptile
  3. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) — CR; only in Chambal, Girwa, Ghagra rivers; distinct narrow snout; fish-eater
• Captive breeding centers: Nandankanan (Odisha), Kukrail (UP), Deori (Assam)
• Gharial is a biomonitor for river health — its presence indicates clean rivers

Captive Breeding:

• Breeding of endangered species in controlled environments (zoos, breeding centers) for reintroduction
• Successful examples in India: Crocodile (gharial), Vulture breeding centers (6 centers — vulture decline due to Diclofenac drug in cattle carcasses → Diclofenac banned 2006)
• Cheetah Reintroduction (2022): 8 Namibian cheetahs (later South African too) released in Kuno-Palpur NP (MP); first intercontinental cheetah translocation; cheetah extinct in India since 1952

Other Government Measures:

• TRAFFIC India: Monitors wildlife trade; branch of TRAFFIC (Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce)
• Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB): Central agency to combat wildlife crime
• National Wildlife Action Plan (2017–2031): 14 priority areas for conservation
• Project Dolphin (2020): Announced by PM Modi; protects both Gangetic Dolphin and marine dolphins