Akbar (1556–1605)

Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar is universally regarded as the greatest of all Mughal emperors. He built the Mughal Empire into a vast, well-organized, and durable state and is remembered for his policy of religious tolerance and administrative genius.

Early Reign & Second Battle of Panipat (1556)

• Akbar was only 13 when he came to power. His regent was the able general Bairam Khan (a Shia Muslim).
• Second Battle of Panipat (5 November 1556): Akbar's forces (led by Bairam Khan) defeated Hemu (Vikramaditya), the Hindu general of the Sur empire, who had actually occupied Delhi and declared himself king and taken the title "Vikramaditya." Hemu had won 22 consecutive battles before this.
• After victory, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan in 1560 (who went on Hajj and was murdered on his way). This phase of personal rule from 1560 is called the "Petticoat Government" as he fell under the influence of his mother Hamida Banu and foster-mother Maham Anaga.

Military Conquests:

• Akbar systematically brought almost the entire Indian subcontinent under Mughal control.
• Conquered: Malwa (1561), Gondwana (1564), Rajputana, Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574-76), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), Sindh (1591), Orissa (1592), Balochistan (1594-95), Kandahar (1595), Deccan (Ahmednagar, 1600).

Rajput Policy

• Akbar's most brilliant political stroke was his conciliation of the Rajputs. Unlike predecessors who fought them, he gave them honorable positions in the Mughal nobility.
• He married Harkha Bai (Jodha Bai), the daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber — she was the mother of Jahangir.
• Famous Rajput generals: Man Singh of Amber and Birbal served as his Navratna (Nine Jewels) members.
• Only the Rana of Mewar (Rana Pratap) refused to submit. The Battle of Haldighati (1576) between Akbar's forces (led by Man Singh) and Rana Pratap ended inconclusively — Rana Pratap escaped but never submitted.

Administrative Reforms

1. Mansabdari System:

• The cornerstone of the Mughal administrative system. Mansab = rank or position.
• Every imperial official was assigned a "Zat" rank (personal rank determining pay) and a "Sawar" rank (cavalry rank determining the number of horsemen to maintain).
• Ranks started from 10 to 10,000 (later up to 50,000 under Shah Jahan).
• Mansabdars were paid in cash from the central treasury (or assigned jagirs/land revenue).
• The system was not hereditary — the mansab reverted to the state upon death.

2. Revenue System (Todar Mal's Bandobast / Ain-i-Dahsala):

• Revenue Minister Todar Mal introduced the Zabti system (measurement of land by jarib, a bamboo rod with iron rings).
• Land was classified into four categories based on cultivation frequency.
• The Ain-i-Dahsala (Ten-Year Settlement, 1580) required averaging of the past 10 years' produce and prices to fix the revenue — a more stable and fair assessment.
• This system was also called Zabt or Bandobast (arrangement).

3. Administrative Division:

• Empire divided into Subahs (Provinces), headed by Subedar (Governor).
• Each Subah divided into Sarkars (Districts) and further into Parganas.
• Important provincial officers: Diwan (revenue), Bakshi (military), Qazi (judicial), Sadr (religious/charity).

Religious Policy — Din-i-Ilahi

• Akbar had a naturally curious and syncretic mind. He constructed the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, where scholars of all religions debated.
• In 1579, he issued the "Infallibility Decree" (Mazhar), which declared him the final authority in religious disputes — effectively making the state supreme over the clergy.
• Din-i-Ilahi (1582): "Divine faith" or "Divine Monotheism" — Akbar's eclectic personal religion. It borrowed from Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity. It was not a religion with mosques or priests — more of a cult of discipleship (murid) centered on Akbar.
• Birbal was the only Hindu to formally accept Din-i-Ilahi.
• He abolished Jizya in 1564 and the pilgrimage tax on Hindus in 1563.

The Navratna (Nine Jewels)

• Akbar's court had nine extraordinary intellects:
  1. Birbal — the wit and close friend; only Hindu to accept Din-i-Ilahi.
  2. Todar Mal — Revenue minister; architect of the land revenue system.
  3. Abul Fazl — Court chronicler; authored Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama.
  4. Faizi — Poet laureate; Abul Fazl's brother.
  5. Tansen — Greatest musician of medieval India; trained under Swami Haridas.
  6. Man Singh — Commander in Chief.
  7. Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khana — Poet and general.
  8. Mullah Do Piaza — Advisor.
  9. Raja Bhagwan Das — Rajput noble.

Cultural Contributions

• Architecture: Built Fatehpur Sikri (1571-1585) near Agra — a planned royal capital and a masterpiece of Mughal architecture combining Persian and Indian styles. Also built the Agra Fort (converted from the old Lodi fort).
• Buland Darwaza: Built at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate his Gujarat victory; the highest gateway in the world.
• Art: Under Akbar, Mughal paintings developed a distinct style blending Persian and Indian (Hindu) artistic traditions. The Hamzanama was illustrated during his reign.
• Akbar was reportedly illiterate but had books read to him daily. He was deeply interested in music, art, and architecture.