Struggle for Empire in North India: Afghans, Rajputs & Mughals

The early 16th century was a period of intense political struggle for supremacy over North India. Three major powers competed: the Afghans (Lodis and later the Surs), the Rajput confederacy (primarily under Rana Sanga of Mewar), and the newly arrived Central Asian power of Babur (the Timurids/Mughals).

The Political Scenario (c. 1500–1526)

• The Afghan Lodis: Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) ruled a weakened Delhi Sultanate, having alienated many of his own Afghan nobles through autocratic rule.
• The Rajput Power — Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh I) of Mewar: The most powerful Rajput ruler of the time. He controlled substantial territories in Rajasthan and had inflicted defeats on the Lodi Sultans. He harbored ambitions to be the supreme power in North India and even invited Babur, expecting him to plunder and return as Timur had done.
• The Timurids (Mughals): Babur, a prince of the Fergana Valley (Uzbekistan) and a descendant of both Timur (from father's side) and Genghis Khan (from mother's side), was seeking an empire after losing his ancestral kingdom to the Uzbek Shaibanis. He was invited by Daulat Khan Lodi and Alam Khan from India.

The Mughal Empire (1526–1858)

The Mughal Empire was one of the largest, wealthiest, and most powerful empires in the world during the 16th–17th centuries. At its peak under Aurangzeb, it controlled most of the Indian subcontinent.

Babur (1526–1530)

• Full Name: Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur. Born in 1483 in Fergana.
• Heritage: Descendant of Timur on his father's side and Genghis Khan on his mother's side — hence the dynasty is called "Mughal" (from Mongol).

Key Battles:

1. First Battle of Panipat (21 April 1526):

• Babur vs. Ibrahim Lodi (Sultan of Delhi).
• Babur's decisive advantage: Gunpowder and artillery (matchlock guns) — the first effective use of firearms in battle in the Indian subcontinent, borrowed from Ottoman Turkish warfare.
• He also used the Tulughma (flanking) tactic — wrapping his forces around the enemy's flanks.
• Result: Ibrahim Lodi was killed, ending the Delhi Sultanate and establishing the Mughal Empire.

2. Battle of Khanwa (17 March 1527):

• Babur vs. Rana Sanga of Mewar (supported by Afghan chiefs and Mahmud Lodi).
• This was a harder battle than Panipat. Before the battle, Babur delivered a rousing speech, gave up wine, declared the war a Jihad, and took the title "Ghazi."
• Babur's artillery and superior tactics again prevailed. Rana Sanga was defeated.
• Significance: This battle sealed Mughal supremacy in North India over the Rajputs.

3. Battle of Chanderi (1528):

• Babur vs. Medini Rai of Chanderi (a Rajput chief). Babur besieged and took Chanderi.

4. Battle of Ghaghra (1529):

• Babur vs. the Afghan chiefs (Mahmud Lodi supported by Bengal Sultanate) on the banks of the Ghaghra river.
• Babur's last major battle; he crushed the Afghan resistance.

Babur's Contributions:

• Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi): His autobiography in the Chagatai Turkic language, one of the most celebrated works of world literature. It was translated into Persian as Baburnama by his grandson Akbar's court.
• Introduced Gunpowder: Revolutionized Indian warfare.
• Gardens (Char Bagh style): Introduced the Persian char-bagh (four-part garden) style to India; laid gardens in Agra and Kabul.
• Babur called India a land of "little charm" in his memoirs, preferring the climate of Kabul.
• Died in 1530 in Agra at the age of 47. According to legend, seriously ill Humayun recovered miraculously and Babur died shortly after, having prayed to God to take his (Babur's) life and spare his son.

Humayun (1530–1540, and 1555–1556)

• Full Name: Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Humayun. Born in 1508.
• His name means "fortunate," but his life was characterized by reversal of fortune until his final victory.

First Reign (1530–1540):

• Humayun faced the challenge of consolidating the new empire against multiple threats: his own brothers (Kamran, Hindal, Askari) who sought independent kingdoms, and the Afghan power led by Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri) in Bihar and Bengal.
• Battle of Chausa (1539): Sher Khan defeated Humayun on the banks of the Ganga near Chausa. Humayun barely escaped by riding across the river on an inflated water-skin with the help of a water-carrier named Nizam. Humayun later rewarded Nizam by making him king for half a day!
• Battle of Kanauj/Bilgram (1540): Sher Shah (now formally crowned) decisively defeated Humayun again. Humayun fled India for the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp of Persia.

Exile in Persia (1540–1555):

• Humayun spent about 15 years in exile.
• With Safavid Persian support (at the price of converting temporarily to Shia Islam), he recaptured Kandahar (1545) and Kabul.
• In Persia, he married Hamida Banu Begum, and their son Akbar was born in 1542 at Amarkot (Sindh) while Humayun was in flight.

Restoration (1555):

• After Sher Shah's death and the subsequent weakening of the Sur empire, Humayun reconquered Delhi and Agra.
• He died just months later in 1556 — he fell down the stairs of his library (Sher Mandal) at Din Panah, Delhi, while descending in a hurry to attend the muezzin's call to prayer.

Humayun's Legacy:

• Humayun's Tomb (Delhi): Built by his wife Haji Begum; the first garden-tomb (char bagh style) in India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It served as a prototype for the Taj Mahal.
• Persian cultural influence: His stay at the Safavid court introduced strong Persian artistic and literary influences to the Mughal court — including the painters Khwaja Abdus Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali who would later illuminate the Hamzanama.

The Sur Interregnum — Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545)

• Sher Shah Suri is one of the greatest administrators in medieval Indian history. He was born Farid Khan in Bihar.
• He got the name "Sher Shah" after killing a tiger single-handedly.

Administrative Reforms (crucial for UPSC):

1. Land Revenue System:

• The most important reform. Introduced Raiyatwari system — direct measurement and settlement of land with the farmer (raiyat), not through intermediaries.
• Land was classified into three types: Polaj (best, annually cultivated), Parauti (fallow for a year), and Banjar (uncultivated for 3+ years).
• He fixed land revenue at 1/3 of the produce.
• Issued a Patta (title deed) to each farmer and took a Qabuliyat (acceptance deed) from them — revolutionary for his time.

2. The Grand Trunk Road (G.T. Road / Sadak-e-Azam):

• Rebuilt and extended the ancient Uttarapath — the road from the Indus (Rohtas) to Bengal (Sonargaon), spanning approximately 1,500 miles.
• Planted trees (banyan/shady) on both sides, built sarais (rest houses/inns) every 2 kos (approximately 5 km). About 1,700 sarais were built, each with a mosque, a well, and separate accommodation for Hindus and Muslims.
• These sarais served as the postal relay system (Dak Chowkis) — a forerunner of the modern postal service.

3. Currency Reform:

• Introduced the standard silver Rupiya of 178 grains — the direct ancestor of the modern Indian Rupee.
• Also minted gold Muhar and copper Dam coins.

4. Military Reorganization:

• Reintroduced the Branding (Dagh) system for horses and maintained a descriptive roll (Chehra/Huliya) of soldiers — to prevent nobles from substituting inferior horses.

5. Administration:

• Divided the empire into 47 Sarkars (districts), each Sarkar divided into Parganas. Each Sarkar had a Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (military chief) and a Munsif-i-Munsifan (revenue/judicial chief).

• Sher Shah died in 1545 in an explosion of gunpowder at the siege of Kalinjar fort (MP). He is buried in a magnificent mausoleum at Sasaram (Bihar) — considered one of the finest examples of Afghan architecture in India.