The Pre-Mauryan Period (c. 600 BCE - 300 BCE)

By the 6th century BCE, the center of political activity shifted from the western part of the Gangetic plain to eastern UP and Bihar. The widespread use of iron tools led to the clearance of forests and the expansion of agriculture in this fertile region. Agricultural surplus facilitated the rise of towns, trade, and eventually, the formation of large territorial states known as Mahajanapadas.

1. The 16 Mahajanapadas

According to the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya and the Jain text Bhagavati Sutra, there were 16 great territorial states (Mahajanapadas) existing in northern India during the 6th century BCE.

While most Mahajanapadas were monarchies (ruled by kings), some were Gana-Sanghas (republics or oligarchies, like the Vajjis and Mallas), where power was shared by an assembly of tribal representatives.

Key Mahajanapadas and their Capitals:

• Magadha: Capital at Rajagriha (later Pataliputra). It became the most powerful and eventually absorbed all others.
• Anga: Capital at Champa (modern Bhagalpur/Munger in Bihar). This was the first state conquered by Magadha.
• Kasi: Capital at Varanasi. Famous for its cotton textiles.
• Kosala: Capital at Shravasti (and also Ayodhya).
• Vatsa: Capital at Kaushambi. Located around modern Allahabad.
• Avanti: Capital at Ujjain (North) and Mahishmati (South). Located in Malwa.
• Vajji: Capital at Vaishali. It was a confederacy of eight clans (including the Lichchhavis). It was a prominent republic.
• Gandhara: Capital at Taxila (Takshashila). Famous for its university and trade.
• Kamboja: Capital at Poonch/Rajapura. Famous for its excellent breed of horses.
• Asmaka (Assaka): Capital at Potali/Godavari. The only Mahajanapada situated to the south of the Vindhyas, on the banks of Godavari.

2. The Rise of Magadha

Magadha emerged victorious in the protracted struggle for supremacy among the Mahajanapadas. Several factors contributed to its success: its advantageous geographical location surrounded by hills (Rajagriha) and rivers (Pataliputra), fertile soil, access to iron ores (in Chota Nagpur) for weapons, and the use of elephants in its army.

A. The Haryanka Dynasty (c. 544 BCE - 412 BCE)

• Bimbisara (Shrenika): The founder. He was a contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira. He expanded Magadha through a standing army, conquests (conquered Anga), and matrimonial alliances (married princesses from Kosala, Vaishali, and Madra).
• Ajatashatru (Kunika): Son of Bimbisara. He killed his father to seize the throne. He pursued an aggressive policy of expansion and fought a long 16-year war against the Vajji confederacy, successfully annexing it using new weapons (Mahashilakantaka, a catapult, and Rathamusala, a chariot with a mace). He convened the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha.
• Udayin: Son of Ajatashatru. His major contribution was founding the new capital city of Pataliputra at the confluence of the Ganga and Son rivers.

B. The Shishunaga Dynasty (c. 412 BCE - 344 BCE)

• Shishunaga was a minister who overthrew the last weak Haryanka ruler.
• Shishunaga: His greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of Avanti, permanently absorbing it into Magadha.
• Kalasoka (Kakavarna): Son of Shishunaga. During his reign, the Second Buddhist Council was held at Vaishali.

C. The Nanda Dynasty (c. 344 BCE - 322 BCE)

• Founded by Mahapadma Nanda, who usurped the throne by murdering the last Shishunaga king. He was a non-Kshatriya ruler. He was called Ugrasena (owner of a huge army) and Ekarat (sole sovereign). He conquered Kalinga (Odisha) and brought an image of Jina from there as a trophy.
• Dhana Nanda: The last Nanda ruler. He was contemporaries with Alexander the Great, who invaded North-Western India (326 BCE) during his reign but did not advance into Magadha due to his army's mutiny and fear of the massive Nanda army (Nanda had a huge army of infantry, cavalry, chariots, and 6,000 elephants). Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to oppressive taxation, which allowed Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya to overthrow him.