Aurangzeb (1658–1707)

• Full Name: Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir ("Conqueror of the Universe"). Born 1618.
• The last of the "Great Mughals" and the most controversial — praised as a pious administrator by some, condemned as a bigot who destroyed the empire by others.
• He held no music or dance in his court (prohibited as un-Islamic), refused to use intoxicants, and personally stitched caps to earn his own living expenses (not from state treasury).

Key Events:

1. Religious Policy (The Most Controversial Aspect):

• Re-imposed Jizya (tax on non-Muslims) in 1679 — reversed Akbar's abolition after 115 years.
• Ordered the demolition of many Hindu temples, including the Kashi Vishwanath temple at Varanasi (replaced with Gyanvapi Mosque), Mathura's Keshava Dev temple (replaced with Shahi Idgah mosque), and temples at Somnath.
• Prohibited music and dance at the court.
• Discontinued the practice of Jharoka darshan (public viewing of the emperor from a window).
• However: Large number of Hindus served in high positions. His most trusted general Jai Singh (Mirza Raja Jai Singh) and commander Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur held very high mansabs.

2. Deccan Wars — The Fatal Obsession:

• Aurangzeb spent the last 25 years of his reign (1682–1707) in the Deccan, personally commanding campaigns against the Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, 1686; Golconda, 1687) and the Marathas.
• He conquered Bijapur and Golconda — briefly unifying almost the entire Indian subcontinent.
• However, the Maratha guerrilla warfare (under Shivaji's successors, especially Sambhaji and then Rajaram and Tarabai) completely exhausted the Mughal army and treasury over 25 years.
• Aurangzeb died (1707) in the Deccan, lamenting his failures: "I came alone and go alone... I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing."

3. Shivaji and the Marathas:

• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1627–1680) was the founder of the Maratha Kingdom. He escaped from Mughal custody in Agra in 1666 after being confined by Aurangzeb (who had arrested him by treacherously inviting him to court).
• Shivaji developed the guerrilla warfare (Ganimi Kawa) and administered a well-organized state using the Ashtapradhan (council of eight ministers).
• Battle of Purandar (1665): Treaty with Mirza Raja Jai Singh; Shivaji had to give 23 forts to Mughals.
• Aurangzeb's son Muazzam used the famous Mughal general Asad Khan to fight the Marathas after Shivaji.

4. Other Revolts:

• Jat revolt under Gokula (1669) and Rajaram — against Mughal authority in Mathura and Agra region.
• Sikh uprising under Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th Guru) who was executed by Aurangzeb in 1675 for resisting forced conversions — making him a martyr.
• Guru Gobind Singh (10th Guru) founded the Khalsa in 1699, transforming the Sikhs into a martial fraternity.
• Rajput revolts by Marwar and Mewar after the death of Jaswant Singh (1678). Aurangzeb's attempt to interfere in Marwar's succession triggered the Rajput revolt.

Decline of the Mughal Empire (After 1707)

Aurangzeb's death in 1707 triggered the rapid disintegration of the Mughal Empire. The causes of decline were multiple and structural:

1. Wars of Succession and Weak Successors:

• After Aurangzeb, there were 9 emperors in 50 years (1707–1757). These "later Mughals" were mostly weak, pleasure-loving, and dominated by nobles and factions.
• Key later Mughals: Bahadur Shah I (Muazzam) (1707-12), Jahandar Shah (1712-13), Farrukh Siyar (1713-19), Muhammad Shah "Rangila" (1719-1748), Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-54), Alamgir II (1754-59), Shah Alam II (1759-1806), Akbar II (1806-37), Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837-1858).

2. The Sayyid Brothers:

• Abdullah Khan and Hussain Ali Khan (the Sayyid Brothers) became the king-makers (1713-19), placing and deposing emperors at will. They were eventually overthrown by Muhammad Shah in 1720.

3. Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739):

• Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded India during Muhammad Shah's reign, defeated the Mughals at the Battle of Karnal, and then looted Delhi for 57 days.
• He carried away the Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) and the Koh-i-Noor diamond — symbols of Mughal greatness.
• Shah Alam II became virtually a pensioner of the Marathas, then the British.

4. Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions:

• Ahmad Shah Abdali (Durrani) of Afghanistan made multiple invasions. The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) between Abdali's Afghan forces and the Maratha Confederacy (under Vishwasrao and Bhau) ended in a decisive Maratha defeat — eliminating them as a major national power.

5. Rise of Regional Powers:

• The Subedars (governors) became independent: Hyderabad (Nizam-ul-Mulk, 1724), Bengal (Murshid Quli Khan), Awadh (Burhan-ul-Mulk), Punjab (Sikhs), Rajputana (Rajput states).
• The Maratha Confederacy under the Peshwas of Pune became the dominant military power in India by the mid-18th century.

6. The British Factor:

• The British East India Company, already establishing trade posts, capitalized on Mughal weakness. After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the British became the dominant power in Bengal.
• The Mughal Emperors became nominal pensioners of the British, symbolically ruling as "Kings of Delhi."
• The last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, was exiled to Rangoon (Yangon) after the Revolt of 1857, ending the Mughal dynasty.

Structural Causes of Decline:

• Jagirdari crisis: The number of mansabdars exceeded available jagirs, leading to financial strain and noble discontent.
• Depletion of treasury by Aurangzeb's endless Deccan wars.
• Military weakness: The cavalry-based army could not match the superior firearms and organization of a modernizing world.
• Absence of a law of primogeniture: Each emperor's death triggered a brutal succession war.
• Agrarian distress and revolts.