Agriculture in India: Infrastructure, Institutional Factors & Cropping Patterns

1. Importance of Agriculture

• Agriculture is the backbone of the Indian economy, contributing about 17-18% to GDP (though declining from 56% at independence).
• It employs about 42-45% of the workforce (as per recent surveys).
• India is among the world's largest producers of food grains, vegetables, fruits, milk, tea, cotton, and spices.

2. Agricultural Infrastructure

Irrigation

• Net Irrigated Area: About 68 million hectares out of NSA of 141 million hectares (~48% of NSA is irrigated).
• India has the largest irrigation system in the world.

Sources of Irrigation:

• Canals (~25%): Most important for large tracts. Major canal networks: Punjab-Haryana (Bhakra-Nangal, Indira Gandhi Canal – world's longest irrigation canal), UP (Eastern Ganga Canal), Rajasthan.
• Tube Wells/Wells (~60%+ currently): Now the dominant source. Punjab, UP, Bihar, Rajasthan. Over-exploitation of groundwater is a growing problem.
• Tanks (~5%): Traditional source in South India (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka).

Types of Irrigation:

• Surface Irrigation: Flood/furrow irrigation (most common but wasteful).
• Drip Irrigation: Highly efficient, used in horticulture (Israel's technology popularized in India). Promoted under PMKSY.
• Sprinkler Irrigation: Suitable for uneven land and crops like wheat.

Key Irrigation Schemes:

• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): "Har Khet Ko Pani, More Crop Per Drop." Aims to achieve convergence of irrigation investments.
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefits Programme (AIBP): For completing incomplete major/medium irrigation projects.

Seeds

• High-Yielding Varieties (HYV) or improved seeds were the cornerstone of the Green Revolution.
• National Seeds Corporation (NSC) and State Farms Corporation of India (SFCI) are key public-sector bodies.
• Seeds Bill/Policy: Push for private R&D and public-private partnerships.
• Seed replacement ratio (the ratio of seeds replaced vs. saved seeds) is still low in India, especially for some crops and regions.

Fertilizers

• The use of chemical fertilizers has increased dramatically since the Green Revolution.
• NPK Ratio: The ideal N:P:K ratio is 4:2:1, but India has an imbalance, with excessive use of nitrogen (mainly urea) and deficiency of P and K.
• Urea Production: India is the 3rd largest producer and consumer of urea globally.
• Key Policy: Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) scheme for P&K fertilizers; urea is differently regulated with an MRP fixed by the government.
• Organic/Bio-fertilizers: Push through PM Pranam Yojana and Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY – organic farming).

Power in Agriculture

• Electricity (for pumping groundwater) and diesel are the two primary energy sources for agriculture.
• Subsidized power has encouraged over-exploitation of groundwater. Reform is politically difficult.
• PM-KUSUM scheme: For providing solar-powered pumps to farmers.

3. Institutional Factors

Land Holdings

• India has a preponderance of small and marginal holdings.
• Operational Holdings: About 146 million holdings (as per Agriculture Census).
• Average Holding Size: Has declined from 2.28 ha (1970-71) to about 1.08 ha (2015-16) due to population growth and fragmentation.
• Marginal Holdings (<1 ha): ~68% of all holdings.
• Small and fragmented holdings lead to low productivity, inability to invest, and difficulty in adopting modern technology.

Land Tenure

• Land tenure refers to the relationship between the cultivator and the land they till.
• Owner cultivation (cultivator owns the land) is the most prevalent after land reforms.
• Tenancy/share-cropping was a highly exploitative system before independence.

Land Reforms (Post-Independence)

Phase 1 – Abolition of Intermediaries (~1950s):

• The Zamindars (landlords), Jagirdars, and other intermediaries who collected revenue from peasants were abolished. About 20 million tenants became direct land owners.

Phase 2 – Tenancy Reforms:

• Regulation of rents (fair rents), security of tenure for tenants, and the right of tenants to purchase land they cultivate.

Phase 3 – Land Ceiling:

• Acts setting an upper limit (ceiling) on the amount of agricultural land any individual or family can own. Surplus land to be redistributed to landless labourers and small farmers.
• Implementation was poor due to political resistance and loopholes (benami transfers, exemptions for plantations).

Phase 4 – Consolidation of Holdings:

• Merging scattered, fragmented pieces of an individual's land into one or a few compact pieces. Successful in Punjab and Haryana; poor in eastern India.

Phase 5 – Cooperative Farming:

• Voluntary grouping of farmers to pool resources. Largely unsuccessful in India (unlike China).

4. Cropping Patterns

Major Crop Seasons

• Kharif (Autumn Crop): Sown in June-July (onset of SW Monsoon), harvested in September-October. Rice, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Groundnut, Jute.
• Rabi (Spring Crop): Sown in October-November (retreating monsoon), harvested in March-April. Wheat, Barley, Gram (Chickpea), Mustard, Linseed.
• Zaid (Summer Crop): Short duration season between Rabi and Kharif (March to June). Watermelon, Muskmelon, Cucumbers, Fodder crops.

Cropping Intensity**

• Cropping Intensity = (Gross Cropped Area / Net Sown Area) × 100.
• High cropping intensity indicates multiple cropping. Punjab and Haryana have the highest cropping intensity due to irrigation.

Crop Combination**

• Refers to the group of crops grown in an area. Classification by Weaver's method or Doi's method identifies combinations like Rice-Wheat, Rice-Jute, Cotton-Groundnut, Wheat-Gram.

Agricultural Productivity**

• Measured as yield per hectare. India's productivity is rising but still below world averages for most crops.
• Low productivity is due to: small fragmented holdings, poor irrigation, inadequate use of inputs, dependence on monsoon, soil degradation.

Land Capability Classification**

• Classifies land based on its limitations for sustained use. 8 classes (I - best, VIII - worst/conservation only). Used for agricultural planning.