History of Theatre and Drama in India

The origin of Indian theatre is tightly linked to ancient religious rituals, seasonal festivals, and storytelling traditions. The theoretical parameters for Indian theatre were immortalized in Bharata Muni's Natya Shastra (c. 200 BCE - 200 CE), referring to theatre as the "Fifth Veda," accessible to all classes.

1. Classical Sanskrit Theatre

• Characteristics: Highly stylized and rule-bound. Performances were often held in palaces or temple courtyards. The plays were multilingual—the protagonists (kings, Brahmins) spoke standard Sanskrit, while women and lower-class characters spoke vernacular Prakrit. The narrative concluded happily, as tragic endings (death of the hero) were strictly forbidden in Sanskrit drama.
• Stock Characters: The Sutradhara (director/narrator who introduces the play) and the Vidushaka (the comic relief, usually a Brahmin who provides satire on social norms).
• Decline: Sanskrit theatre declined post-1000 CE due to the advent of the Delhi Sultanate (lack of royal patronage for Hindu dramatic arts) and the increasing rise of regional languages replacing Sanskrit.

2. Regional and Folk Theatre

Following the decline of classical theatre, the medieval period saw the explosive rise of folk theatre heavily influenced by the Bhakti movement. Folk theatre is generally categorized into secular (romantic/historical) and devotional (mythological) streams.

A. Northern India

• Bhavai (Gujarat/Rajasthan): A highly energetic, secular folk theatre relying heavily on acrobatics and music. Famous for balancing pitchers on the head during performance. Uses a harsh, high-pitched wind instrument called Bhungal.
• Swang (Haryana/UP): Extremely dialogue-heavy and musical. Emphasizes heroics and romantic ballads rather than religion.
• Nautanki (Uttar Pradesh): Known for incredibly rapid, rhythmic dialogues, loud music (using the Nagara drum), and romantic/secular themes. It was enormously popular before the advent of cinema.
• Rasleela (UP/Vrindavan): Devotional theatre depicting the teenage romance and divine play of Lord Krishna and Radha.
• Ramleela (North India): The theatrical enactment of the Ramayana leading up to Dussehra. Recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage.

B. Eastern India

• Jatra (West Bengal): Originally initiated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu to propagate the Krishna cult, it transformed into a highly secular, politically-charged musical theatre form during the 19th and 20th centuries.
• Bhaona (Assam): Created by Srimanta Sankardeva. Actors (Bhawariyas) perform mythological stories in Ankiya Nat (one-act plays) focused on Lord Krishna, communicating primarily in the artificial literary language called Brajavali.
• Chhau (Jharkhand/Odisha/West Bengal): A unique blend of martial arts, tribal dance, and theatre. Involves elaborate masks (except the Mayurbhanj style) and energetic, combat-like movements.

C. Southern India

• Yakshagana (Karnataka): A dazzling, energetic night-long performance combining dance, music, and spoken dialogue. Features massive, towering headdresses and elaborate facial makeup. Themes rely heavily on the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
• Koodiyattam (Kerala): The absolute oldest surviving Sanskrit theatre tradition. Recognized by UNESCO. It features extremely slow, highly stylized acting, utilizing elaborate hand gestures (mudras) and facial expressions.
• Burra Katha (Andhra Pradesh): A narrative storytelling form combining drama, music, and dance, performed by a single lead storyteller accompanied by two drummers.

D. Western and Central India

• Tamasha (Maharashtra): Evolved from the folk genres of Gondhal and Lavani. A highly secular, fast-paced performance notable for its sharp humor, sensual dance movements, and the presence of the Vag (dramatic portion). The female lead (Murli) is the main attraction.
• Maach (Madhya Pradesh): A musical drama primarily focusing on historical romance and the bravery of local figures.

3. Modern Indian Theatre

Modern theatre truly began in the late 18th century under British rule, modeling the proscenium stage. Post-independence, bodies like the National School of Drama (NSD) fostered playwrights like Habib Tanvir, Girish Karnad, and Vijay Tendulkar who hybridized folk elements (like Yakshagana/Nautanki) with modern European realism and existential themes.