Social & Religious Reform Movements (19th–20th Century)

1. Background: Why Reform Movements Emerged

The 19th century witnessed a remarkable intellectual and social awakening in India — often called the Indian Renaissance. It was triggered by the collision of Indian tradition with Western modernity under British rule.

Context for Reform:

• Impact of Western Education: The introduction of English education (through Charter Act 1813 and Macaulay's Minute 1835) created a new westernized middle class — lawyers, doctors, English-educated intellectuals — who began critically examining Indian society.
• Revulsion at Social Evils: Sati (widow burning), child marriage, female infanticide, untouchability, caste discrimination, purdah — educated Indians were increasingly embarrassed and outraged by these practices.
• Attack by Christian Missionaries: Missionaries criticized Hindu and Muslim practices, which forced Indian thinkers to defend and reform their own traditions.
• Orientalist Scholarship: British and European scholars (like Max Müller, William Jones — founder of Asiatic Society, 1784) translated Sanskrit texts and showed the richness of ancient Indian thought, giving Indian thinkers pride in their heritage.
• Availability of Print Media: Newspapers and journals allowed ideas to spread rapidly.

Two Broad Tendencies:

1. Reform + embrace of modernity (Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj) — accept reason and science, purge religion of superstitions.
2. Reform + revivalism (Arya Samaj) — return to original Vedic purity; reject later corruptions.

2. Brahmo Samaj & Associated Movements (Bengal)

Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) — "Father of Modern India":

• Born in Bengal; learned Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, English, Greek, and Hebrew.
• Founded the Atmiya Sabha (1815) as a discussion group for social and religious reform.
• Founded the Brahmo Sabha (1828), later known as Brahmo Samaj — India's first modern social reform organization.
• Key beliefs: Monotheism (one God); opposition to idol worship; attack on caste system; equality of all humans; women's rights.
• Key achievement: Campaigned vigorously against Sati — led directly to the Bengal Sati Regulation (Regulation XVII) of 1829 under Governor-General Lord William Bentinck, which made Sati illegal.
• Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali newspaper) and Mirat-ul-Akhbar (Persian) — used to spread reformist ideas.
• Favored English education and Western science.
• Sailed to England in 1830; died in Bristol, England (1833).
• Charter Act 1833 — his lobbying influenced the inclusion of non-discrimination clause.

Devendranath Tagore (1817–1905):

• Revitalized Brahmo Samaj after Roy's death; founded Tattvabodhini Sabha (1839).
• Emphasized study of Upanishads; more orthodox than Roy.

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838–1884):

• Joined Brahmo Samaj in 1857; gave it a more radical direction.
• Led to the split of Brahmo Samaj in 1866 into:
  • Adi Brahmo Samaj (Devendranath's group — more traditional)
  • Brahmo Samaj of India (Keshab's group — more radical, pan-India)
• Championed widow remarriage, inter-caste marriage, women's education.
• Keshab controversially allowed his own underage daughter to marry the Maharaja of Cooch Behar — led to another split, and the formation of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj (1878).
• He toured England; influenced by Christianity; later moved toward bhakti and mysticism.

Prarthana Samaj (Bombay, 1867):

• Inspired by Brahmo Samaj; founded by Atmaram Pandurang.
• Distinguished members: Mahadev Govind Ranade (Justice) and R.G. Bhandarkar.
• Focused on social reform within the Hindu framework:
  • Abolition of caste distinctions
  • Widow remarriage
  • Female education
  • Raising the age of marriage
• Worked through social work (not religious reform) — more pragmatic.
• Linked to the later Indian National Social Conference (INSC) started by Ranade in 1887.

3. Arya Samaj (1875) & Other Hindu Reform Movements

Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1824–1883):

• Born in Tankara, Kathiawar (Gujarat). Real name Mool Shankar.
• Appalled by idol worship and priestcraft; deeply influenced by his guru Swami Virjanand.
• Founded Arya Samaj in Bombay on April 10, 1875.

Key Principles of Arya Samaj:

• "Back to the Vedas" (Vedic Revivalism): Vedas are the sole source of true knowledge; all later texts (Puranas, idol worship) are corruptions.
• Rejected caste by birth — "Vedic caste" should be based on merit and actions.
• Abolished idol worship, pilgrimages, child marriage, purdah.
• Championed widow remarriage and women's education.
• Promoted the Shuddhi movement — reconversion of Hindus who had converted to Islam or Christianity back to Hinduism.
• Sanskrit and Vedic learning should be the foundation of education.

Dayanand's book: Satyarth Prakash ("Light of Truth") — a comprehensive critique of non-Vedic practices.

Educational Work:

• Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) Schools/Colleges — first DAV college opened in Lahore, 1886 (after Dayanand's death in 1883, probably poisoned by his cook allegedly hired by enemies).
• Gurukul Kangri (1902, near Haridwar) — residential Vedic education.

Significance of Arya Samaj:

• Gave Indians confidence and pride in their Vedic heritage — combated Christian missionary attacks.
• Shuddhi movement created communal tensions with Muslims (those converted back were proud, but Muslims resented "reconversion").
• Strongest in Punjab and Western UP — became a feeder for militant nationalism.
• Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami Shraddhanand were associated with Arya Samaj.

Ramakrishna Mission (1897):

• Founded by Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) in memory of his guru Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–1886).
• Ramakrishna: mystic saint of Dakshineswar Kali temple (near Calcutta); believed all religions lead to the same God.
• Vivekananda: Narendra Nath Datta; represented Hinduism at the Parliament of World's Religions, Chicago, September 11, 1893 — his speech ("Sisters and Brothers of America") received a standing ovation; put Vedanta on the world map.
• Ramakrishna Mission: emphasis on practical Vedanta — serving God through serving man; modern monasteries with service to humanity (hospitals, schools, disaster relief).
• Vivekananda's books: Raja Yoga, Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga.
• Vivekananda's nationalism: "India is immortal, she will rise again"; stirred a sense of pride and energy in the youth.

4. Aligarh Movement & Islamic Reforms

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) — Aligarh Movement:

• After 1857, the Muslim community suffered disproportionately — British held them more responsible for the revolt, and they were economically and educationally behind.
• Sir Syed was a loyal civil servant who served the British and believed Muslim revival depended on modern education and cooperation with the British.

Key Activities:

• Scientific Society (1864) — translated Western scientific works into Urdu.
• Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College, Aligarh (1875) — modeled on Oxford/Cambridge; taught modern science + Islamic values + English. Later became Aligarh Muslim University (1920).
• Founded the All India Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886) — promoted modern education among Muslims.
• Urged Muslims NOT to join the Congress (which he saw as dominated by Hindus).
• Opposed separate representation but also opposed Muslim participation in INC.

Legacy:

• Aligarh became the intellectual center of the Muslim middle class in India.
• The "Aligarh spirit" — English educated, loyal to British, yet preserving Islamic identity.
• Critics: His communal approach (Muslims separate from Hindus) contributed to the eventual partition narrative.

Other Islamic Reform Movements:

• Deoband School (1867): Founded by Muhammad Qasim Nanotvi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi at Deoband (UP). Emphasis on traditional Islamic education (Quran, Hadith); hostile to British and Western education — opposite to Aligarh movement. Deoband later participated in the Independence movement.
• Faraizi Movement (Bengal, 1820s): Founded by Haji Shariatullah; Islamic reform, focused on practices that were purely Islamic; anti-zamindar and anti-British tendency.
• Wahhabi/Tayyuni Movement: Led by Syed Ahmad Barelvi — emphasized "pure" Islam; militantly anti-colonial; uprising against the Sikhs and British in NWFP (1820s–63).

5. Women's Reform, Caste Reform & Other Movements

Women's Reform:

• Widow Remarriage Act (1856): Championed by Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820–1891) — Bengali scholar who petitioned government relentlessly; first Hindu widow marriage solemnized 1856. Also worked to abolish Child Marriage and Polygamy.
• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati (1858–1922): Traveled through India, Europe, USA; founded Mukti Mission (Kedgaon, near Pune) for widows. First Indian woman to learn Sanskrit and challenge male-dominated traditions publicly.
• Tarabai Shinde (Stri Purush Tulana, 1882) — first feminist tract in Marathi; challenged double standards in society.

Caste Reform:

• Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890): Fought against Brahminical oppression; founded Satyashodhak Samaj (1873) — "Society of Truth Seekers" — to free women and lower castes from Brahmin domination. First to use the word "Dalit" (oppressed) for lower castes. Founded schools for girls (1848) — attended by his wife Savitribai Phule (India's first female teacher).
• B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956): Led untouchable emancipation movement; organized Mahad Satyagraha (1927) — demanding right of untouchables to use public water at Mahad tank; burned the Manusmriti publicly. Founded Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924). Converted to Buddhism in 1956 (along with 400,000 followers) — October 14, 1956, Nagpur.
• Sri Narayana Guru (1856–1928): In Travancore/Kerala — "One Caste, One Religion, One God for Man." Founded Ezhava community temples; remarkable social reformer against casteism.
• E.V. Ramasamy "Periyar" (1879–1973): Tamil Nadu; Self-Respect Movement (1925); violently anti-caste, anti-Brahmin, anti-Congress; championed rationalism, atheism and Tamil pride.

Theosophical Society (1875):

• Founded by Madame H.P. Blavatsky (Russian) and Colonel H.S. Olcott (American) in New York; international headquarters shifted to Adyar, Madras (1882).
• Promoted study of ancient Hindu and Buddhist philosophy; belief in the brotherhood of all mankind.
• Annie Besant (British socialist) joined in 1893; became the most prominent leader; established the Central Hindu College at Benares (1898) — which became Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in 1916 (with Madan Mohan Malaviya).
• Annie Besant founded the Home Rule League in 1916 — one of the first mass political organizations; became INC President in 1917.