Indian National Congress & Freedom Struggle

1. Formation of Indian National Congress (1885)

The Indian National Congress (INC) was founded on 28 December 1885 at Bombay (Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College) by A.O. Hume (a retired British ICS officer), along with Dadabhai Naoroji and Dinshaw Wacha.

First Session (1885):

• President: Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee
• 72 delegates attended from across India.

Safety Valve Theory (Lala Lajpat Rai's critique): Some historians argue the British allowed INC to form as a "safety valve" to release the steam of growing discontent in a controlled manner — Hume had warned the British government of a possible revolution. Lala Lajpat Rai accepted this theory.

Early Demands of INC (Moderate Phase):

• Expansion and reform of legislative councils.
• Indianization of civil services.
• Separation of judicial and executive functions.
• Reduction in military expenditure.
• Free trade and protection of Indian industry.

The early Congress leaders (Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale) believed in constitutional agitation and petitions/prayers to the British. Dadabhai Naoroji introduced the concept of "Drain of Wealth" (Dada Bhai Naoroji's book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, 1901).

2. Partition of Bengal & Swadeshi Movement (1905)

Partition of Bengal (October 16, 1905):

• Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal into East Bengal and Assam (Muslim majority) and West Bengal (Hindu majority) on communal lines.
• Official reason: Administrative convenience. Real motive: To weaken the nationalist movement by dividing Hindus and Muslims, and to undermine Bengali unity.
• October 16, 1905 became Raksha Bandhan day — Hindus and Muslims tied threads on each other's wrists as a symbol of unity.
• Tagore composed "Amar Sonar Bangla" (which became Bangladesh's national anthem).

Swadeshi Movement:

• Massive boycott of British goods — especially Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.
• Promotion of Indian industries, crafts, and education.
• Swadeshi stores (national shops) opened; Swadeshi Mills established.
• Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai (the Lal-Bal-Pal trio) and Aurobindo Ghose.
• Movement had a cultural dimension — national songs, festivals (Ganapati and Shivaji festivals started by Tilak).

Surat Split (1907):

• Deep divide between Moderates (led by Gokhale — Surat faction) and Extremists (led by Tilak — Nag-pur faction).
• At the Surat Session (1907), a physical brawl broke out — Congress split into two groups.
• British used the split to weaken the nationalist movement — Tilak was arrested in 1908.
• The two factions reunited at the Lucknow Session (1916) under Tilak and Mrs. Annie Besant.

3. Gandian Era: Non-Cooperation to Quit India

Gandhi's Return to India (1915) and his experiments with Satyagraha:

• Champaran Satyagraha (1917): First Satyagraha in India — against forced indigo cultivation by British planters in Bihar. Gandhi won.
• Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Against forced land revenue collection during famine in Gujarat.
• Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): First hunger strike by Gandhi — secured pay raise for mill workers.

Rowlatt Act (1919) and Jallianwala Bagh Massacre:

• Rowlatt Act (Black Act): Allowed arrest and imprisonment without trial for 2 years. Gandhi called for a hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919): General Dyer opened fire on an unarmed crowd gathered at Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar (Baisakhi festival) — 379 killed officially (actual figures much higher); 1,137 wounded. Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Hunter Commission investigated the massacre.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22):

• Launched by Gandhi at the Calcutta Special Session (Sept 1920) and formalized at Nagpur Session (Dec 1920).
• Programme: Boycott of government schools, colleges, courts, elections, legislatures; return of titles and honors; promotion of Swadeshi.
• Combined with Khilafat Movement (to protect the Ottoman Caliphate, led by Ali brothers — Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) — broad Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Withdrawal (February 1922): Gandhi called off the movement after the Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) — a mob burned a police station, killing 22 policemen. Gandhi felt violence was wrong.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–34):

• Lahore Session (December 1929): Congress declared Purna Swaraj (Complete Independence) — January 26, 1930 celebrated as Independence Day.
• Dandi March (Salt March), March 12 – April 6, 1930: Gandhi walked 241 miles from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (Gujarat) to break the Salt Law. The march formally launched Civil Disobedience.
• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 5, 1931): Suspension of Civil Disobedience; Gandhi agreed to attend the Second Round Table Conference (1931). Movement resumed 1932–34.
• Communal Award (August 1932): Ramsay MacDonald granted separate electorates to Depressed Classes — Gandhi went on a fast-unto-death; Poona Pact (Sept 24, 1932) with Ambedkar — reserved seats instead of separate electorates.

Quit India Movement (August 8–9, 1942):

• Launched by Gandhi at the Bombay Session of INC — famous slogan: "Do or Die" (Karo ya Maro).
• British arrested all major Congress leaders on the night of August 8–9, 1942 (Operation Thunderbolt).
• Movement became leaderless but spontaneous — people attacked railway lines, telegraph offices, and government buildings.
• Underground leaders: Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali (hoisted Congress flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan).
• Parallel Governments (Provisional Governments): Established at Ballia (UP), Tamluk and Contai (Bengal), Satara (Maharashtra).
• Roughly 100,000 arrested, 1,000 killed in police firing; most severe repression since 1857.
• Significance: Demonstrated that the British could not govern India without Indian consent; set the stage for final independence.

4. Road to Independence: Key Constitutional Acts

Government of India Act, 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms):

• Introduced Dyarchy in provinces — transferred subjects (education, public health, agriculture) given to Indian ministers; reserved subjects (finance, law, police) retained by Governor.
• Bicameral legislature at the Centre (Council of State + Legislative Assembly).
• Franchise extended — property and tax qualifications.
• Created the Public Service Commission.

Government of India Act, 1935:

• The most comprehensive act before independence — provided the framework for India's later Constitution.
• Key features:
  • All-India Federation (never implemented — princely states refused to join).
  • Provincial Autonomy — provinces gained real autonomy; Dyarchy abolished in provinces and introduced at Centre (never implemented).
  • Separate electorates for Muslims, Sikhs, depressed classes, women, labour.
  • Federal Court established (precursor to Supreme Court).
  • Reserve Bank of India established.
  • Extended franchise to about 14% of population.
• Congress won 8 of 11 provinces in 1937 elections; formed governments.

Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946):

• Proposed a three-tier federal structure: Union, Groups of Provinces, Provinces.
• Proposed a Constituent Assembly to frame constitution.
• Congress accepted conditionally; Jinnah and Muslim League rejected.

Mountbatten Plan / Indian Independence Act (July 1947):

• June 3, 1947 — Lord Mountbatten announced partition.
• Indian Independence Act, 1947 (British Parliament): Provided for two independent dominions — India and Pakistan — from August 15, 1947.
• Princely states given choice to join either dominion or remain independent.
• Boundary Commission headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.