The Decline of Mughal Empire & Rise of Regional Powers

1. Decline of the Mughal Empire

The mighty Mughal Empire began to disintegrate in the early 18th century. Although its collapse is often dated from Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the roots of decay were deep.

Reasons for Decline:

• Aurangzeb's Policies: His prolonged, exhausting Deccan campaign (lasting 25 years) drained the empire's financial and military resources. His orthodox religious policies alienated the Rajputs, Marathas, Sikhs, and Jats.
• Weak Successors (Later Mughals): Between 1707 and 1719, a rapid succession of weak emperors ruled. Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712) tried to pacify the empire but failed. Subsequent rulers like Jahandar Shah and Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) were mere puppets in the hands of powerful nobles (like the Saiyid Brothers, known as the "King Makers").
• Jagirdari Crisis: The number of nobles grew, but the land (Khalisa) available to give them as Jagirs (revenue assignments) shrank. This led to bitter factional fights among nobles (Irani, Turani, Hindustani groups).
• Foreign Invasions:
  • Nadir Shah (1739): The ruler of Persia invaded India, defeated Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela at the Battle of Karnal (1739), and sacked Delhi. He took away the famed Peacock Throne (Takht-e-Taus) and the Koh-i-Noor diamond.
  • Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748-1767): Nadir Shah's successor invaded Northern India multiple times, plundering Delhi, Mathura, and Agra. In the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), he decisively defeated the Marathas.

2. Rise of Successor States (Bengal, Awadh, Hyderabad)

As central authority crumbled, provincial governors (Subahdars) asserted de facto independence, though they continued to recognize the nominal suzerainty of the Mughal Emperor. These were the "Successor States."

A. Hyderabad:

• Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (Chin Qilich Khan) in 1724.
• Frustrated by the factional politics in Delhi, he marched to the Deccan and defeated the Mughal Viceroy Mubariz Khan at the Battle of Shakar-Kheda (1724).
• The Asaf Jahi dynasty ruled Hyderabad until its integration into India (1948).

B. Awadh (Oudh):

• Founded by Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk) in 1722.
• He successfully suppressed rebellious zamindars and secured the province. His successor, Safdar Jung, simultaneously held the post of Nawab of Awadh and Wazir (Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire.
• Awadh became deeply involved in North Indian politics and was critically weakened after the Battle of Buxar (1764).

C. Bengal:

• Founded by Murshid Quli Khan, who was appointed Diwan of Bengal in 1700 by Aurangzeb and became Subahdar in 1717.
• He shifted the capital from Dacca to Murshidabad.
• He introduced the Ijara system (revenue farming) and reorganized land revenue.
• His successors, Shuja-ud-din and Alivardi Khan, made Bengal the most prosperous province of India, setting the stage for the British conquest.

3. Independent States: Mysore and the Sikhs

Unlike successor states, these states emerged out of direct rebellion against the Mughal Empire.

A. Mysore:

• Situated between the Marathas and the Nizam, Mysore was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty.
• In 1761, Haider Ali, an ambitious and brilliant military commander, usurped power and established a powerful, modernized state. He set up an arsenal at Dindigul with French help to manufacture modern cannons.
• His son, Tipu Sultan (Tiger of Mysore), introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and a new scale of weights and measures. Tipu planted a "Tree of Liberty" at Srirangapatna and became a member of the French Jacobin Club, actively seeking an alliance with Napoleon against the British.

B. The Sikhs:

• Guru Gobind Singh transformed the Sikhs into a militant sect (Khalsa in 1699). After him, Banda Bahadur led a fierce peasant uprising against the Mughals until his execution in 1715.
• In the late 18th century, the Sikhs reorganized into 12 Misls (confederacies) under leaders like Kapur Singh and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) of the Sukerchakia Misl united all Sikh misls and carved out a formidable empire covering Punjab, Kashmir, and Peshawar. He modernized his army (Fauj-i-Khas) using European officers (e.g., Ventura, Allard). His empire was the last major Indian power to fall to the British (1849).

4. The Mighty Maratha Empire

The Marathas were the most powerful indigenous force in the 18th century, and the only logical native successor to the Mughals.

Under the Peshwas (Prime Ministers):

• Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720): Made the post of Peshwa hereditary and supreme. Secured the right to collect Chauth (1/4th) and Sardeshmukhi (1/10th) from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan.
• Baji Rao I (1720-1740): The greatest Maratha general. He famously said, "Let us strike at the trunk of the withering tree, the branches will fall of themselves." He expanded Maratha power to Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand, and raided Delhi in 1737.
• Balaji Baji Rao (Nana Saheb) (1740-1761): Under him, Maratha power reached its zenith. The Maratha cavalry reached Bengal in the east and the Indus River in the northwest (Attock).

The Third Battle of Panipat (Jan 14, 1761):

• Combatants: Marathas (led by Sadashivrao Bhau and the teenage Peshwa's son Vishwasrao) vs. Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Abdali (supported by Najib-ud-Daulah of Rohilkhand and Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh).
• Result: A catastrophic defeat for the Marathas. Over 100,000 Maratha soldiers and camp followers were slaughtered. Both Bhau and Vishwasrao died.
• Significance: It did not decide who would rule India, but it definitively decided who would NOT rule India (the Marathas). It broke Maratha supremacy, allowing the British East India Company the breathing space to consolidate their hold on Bengal.